When we hear the word “balkanization,” we think we know what it means: chaos, fragmentation, violence—the geopolitical equivalent of a shattered windshield. It’s a term that sounds authoritative, almost scientific, yet few people stop to ask where it actually comes from. The answer is more revealing than the definition itself: the entire concept of the “Balkan Peninsula” is based on a geographic mistake made by a German scholar in 1808, and the violent connotations that followed were shaped not by the region’s people, but by the empires that drew their borders.
A Mistake in Berlin
The story begins with Johann August Zeune, a geographer working in Berlin during the Romantic Era. In 1808, Zeune proposed naming the southeastern European landmass the “Balkanhalbinsel” (Balkan Peninsula) in his work Gea: Versuch einer wissenschaftlichen Erdbeschreibung. He believed he had identified a continuous mountain range stretching from the Adriatic Sea to the Black Sea—a geographic spine that would mirror the Apennines running through Italy. There was only one problem: that mountain range doesn’t exist.
Zeune mistakenly assumed that the Balkan Mountains (called Haemus in classical texts) formed this grand continental divide. In reality, modern geologists have determined that the actual Balkan Mountains are only about 600 kilometers long and are confined primarily to Bulgaria. As historian Diana Mishkova notes, Zeune “wrongly believed that the Balkan (Haemus) mountain range was Catena Mundi, crossing the whole peninsula and separating it from the continent.” The name itself—”Balkan”—simply means “mountain” in Turkish, making the designation essentially meaningless: the Mountain Peninsula.
Despite being scientifically debunked, the name stuck. By lumping together Slovenians, Greeks, Bulgarians, Albanians, and Serbs into one geographic container, Zeune created a mental framework that implied unity where none existed. As the term gained currency through the 19th century, it carried with it an expectation that everyone inside this imaginary boundary should somehow act alike.
The Ottoman Mosaic
Before diving into how the Balkans became synonymous with violence, we need to challenge a pervasive myth: that the peoples of this region are inherently prone to conflict. The historical record tells a different story. For over 600 years, the Ottoman Empire ruled this territory with a system that was, in many respects, more tolerant than Western Europe during the same period.
While Catholics and Protestants were slaughtering each other across Western Europe during the 16th and 17th centuries, the Ottoman millet system allowed religious communities to govern themselves with considerable autonomy. Orthodox Christians, Armenian Christians, and Jews were organized into millets—self-administered communities that handled their own legal disputes, collected their own taxes, and ran their own schools. According to historian Peter Sugar, although non-Muslims were second-class citizens compared to Muslims, “the millet system was a highly tolerant system that allowed the Ottomans not only to rule by force but also to incorporate non-Muslims at various levels.”
This is not to romanticize Ottoman rule, but to recognize that stability and coexistence were the norm for centuries. The instability that would define “balkanization” didn’t emerge from ancient hatreds—it emerged from the collapse of this system in the 19th century.
Western Powers and the Rise of Nationalism
As the Ottoman Empire weakened, the great powers of Europe—Britain, France, Russia, and Austro-Hungary—saw an opportunity. They couldn’t simply carve up Ottoman territory without risking war among themselves, so they deployed a different weapon: nationalism. Western intellectuals championed the cause of “oppressed” peoples, encouraging Greeks, Serbs, and Bulgarians to throw off “the Turkish yoke.” Lord Byron wrote poetry glorifying Greek independence; Russia positioned itself as protector of the Slavs.
On paper, self-determination sounds noble. In practice, it was catastrophic. The problem was that the populations in the Balkans were mixed. Serbs lived in Ottoman territory, Greeks lived in Bulgarian areas, Albanians lived everywhere. The millet system had preserved this diversity for centuries by organizing people along religious rather than ethnic lines. But the Western concept of the nation-state demanded ethnic homogeneity: one country, one people, one language.
Between 1804 and 1913, as small nations broke free from Ottoman control, they immediately turned on each other, attempting to “cleanse” their territories to create ethnically pure states. The Western powers that had lit this match then looked at the resulting violence and declared the region inherently barbaric—a prime example of what scholar Edward Said called Orientalism, defining the East as chaotic and violent so the West could position itself as rational and civilized.
Yugoslavia and the Modern Definition
If we want to understand how “balkanization” became shorthand for violent disintegration, we must examine Yugoslavia in the 1990s. For decades, Yugoslavia seemed to defy history—a multi-ethnic federation that actually worked, held together by the leadership of Josip Broz Tito under the motto “brotherhood and unity.” But when Tito died in 1980, the glue dissolved.
The rise of Slobodan Milošević and Serbian nationalism triggered a chain reaction. Slovenia and Croatia declared independence in 1991, followed by Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1992. What followed was not an orderly separation but brutal warfare. The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia later documented campaigns of ethnic cleansing, particularly by Bosnian Serb forces, that resulted in the deaths of over 140,000 people according to the International Center for Transitional Justice. The siege of Sarajevo alone lasted nearly 1,400 days and killed more than 10,000 people, including 1,500 children.
The 1990s Yugoslav wars solidified “balkanization” in the global imagination as synonymous with genocide and ethnic cleansing. Yet as scholar Duško Sekulić points out, this violence was not unique to the Balkans—similar conflicts plagued Northern Ireland, Israel-Palestine, and Rwanda during the same period. The timing of Yugoslavia’s collapse, occurring just as the Cold War ended and many believed liberal democracy had triumphed, made it seem like an aberration rather than part of a broader pattern of nationalist violence.
Ukraine: Reestablishment, Not Fragmentation
The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 is often discussed alongside Yugoslavia’s breakup, but there’s a crucial distinction that’s frequently misunderstood—particularly regarding Ukraine. Russian leadership has sometimes suggested that Ukraine is an artificial creation of the Soviet collapse, a narrative that erases centuries of Ukrainian identity.
The historical record contradicts this claim. Ukraine declared independence on August 24, 1991, and held a referendum on December 1. With an 84 percent turnout, over 90 percent of voters—including 55 percent in Russian-speaking Crimea and majorities in every region—endorsed independence. This was not the birth of a new nation but the reestablishment of an old one. Ukraine had briefly achieved independence as the Ukrainian People’s Republic from 1917 to 1921 before being forcibly incorporated into the Soviet Union.
Most significantly, Ukraine possessed a distinct cultural identity that Soviet authorities had actively tried to suppress. Stalin’s man-made famine, the Holodomor of 1932-1933, killed millions of Ukrainians in what many historians recognize as an attempt to crush Ukrainian nationalism. You don’t systematically starve millions to suppress an independence movement that doesn’t exist. The very brutality of the repression proves the existence and persistence of Ukrainian identity.
This distinction matters profoundly. When discussing the Soviet Union’s dissolution, we must differentiate between balkanization—the violent fragmentation of an entity—and restoration—the reemergence of suppressed nations. For Ukrainians in 1991, independence wasn’t chaos; it was liberation.
Conclusion: Whose Map Is Breaking?
The journey from Zeune’s 1808 map to contemporary uses of “balkanization” reveals a troubling pattern. The term describes a real phenomenon—the violent fragmentation of states—but it locates the blame in the wrong place. By treating the Balkans as inherently chaotic, we obscure the role that imperial powers played in creating artificial borders, encouraging nationalist movements, and then abandoning regions to sort out the resulting mess.
Whether in the Balkans, Africa, or the former Soviet Union, fragmentation typically results not from the character flaws of local populations but from the legacy of empires that drew borders with no regard for who actually lived within them. The rip in the map is the symptom, not the disease. The disease is usually the empire that drew the map in the first place.
This matters for how we interpret current events. When we see a region “spiraling into chaos” or a country fragmenting, the crucial questions are not just “Why are they fighting?” but “Who drew these lines?” and “Who benefits when they fall apart?” One person’s balkanization is another person’s independence day. The difference depends entirely on which side of the border—real or imaginary—you’re standing.
Sources
“Ethnic Cleansing in the Bosnian War.” Wikipedia, accessed February 2026.
Sekulić, Duško. “Everything You Always Wanted to Know about ‘Balkanization’, 2024
Sugar, Peter F. Southeastern Europe under Ottoman Rule, 1354-1804.
